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This ingredient also helps improve the spreadability of a product.

This ingredient hasn’t been shown in studies to feed fungal acne yeast.

It is able to lift away oil and grime and make a nice lather without stripping your skin, so it's a good pick for sensitive skin.

Safety-wise, it has a good record. The CIR Expert Panel has concluded this ingredient to be safe in cosmetics and concentrations go up to 11% in leave-on products or 13% in rinse-off products.

Despite being derived from coconut oil, this ingredient is fungal acne safe. It's a water-soluble surfactant with no fatty oils or esters left intact on skin for the Malassezia yeast to feed.

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This ingredient is most commonly found in a popular trio called Aquaxyl. Aquaxyl is made up of anhydroxylitol(24 - 34%), xylitylglucoside (35 - 50%), and xylitol (5 - 15%).

According to a manufacturer, Aquaxyl is known for a 3-D hydration concept and an anti-dehydration shield to reinforce the outer layer of skin.

However, this exfoliating effect only happens at high concentrations (20%) which can be hard to find in cosmetic products.

Due to this, citric acid is usually included in small amounts as a pH adjuster. This helps keep products slightly more acidic and compatible with skin's natural pH.

In skincare formulas, citric acid can:

While it can provide some skin benefits, research shows lactic acid and glycolic acid are generally more effective and less irritating exfoliants.

Most citric acid used in skincare today is made by fermenting sugars (usually from molasses). This synthetic version is identical to the natural citrus form but easier to stabilize and use in formulations.

Read more about some other popular AHA's here:

This ingredient is most commonly found in a popular trio called Aquaxyl. Aquaxyl is made up of anhydroxylitol (24 - 34%), xylitylglucoside (35 - 50%), and xylitol (5 - 15%).

According to a manufacturer, Aquaxyl is known for a 3-D hydration concept and an anti-dehydration shield to reinforce the outer layer of skin.

This ingredient is often derived from plants such as wood and sugarcane.

You might see people debate whether Sodium Chloride is comedogenic, but there actually haven't been any comedogenic tests done on it. Either way, the overall formulation of a product matters a lot more than any single ingredient.

You might see this ingredient used in scrubs as a primary exfoliating ingredient.

This white birch is currently being studied for potential anti-cancer properties. It has been used in traditional Asian medicine to help treat infections.

The prebiotic property of xylitol may also help reinforce our skin's natural microbiome. Having a healthy microbiome prevents infection by bad bacteria and helps with hydration.

As a humectant, Xylitol helps draw moisture from both the air and from deeper skin layers. This helps keep skin hydrated.

Xylitol is a sugar alcohol and commonly used as a sugar substitute. It is naturally occurring in plants such as strawberries and pumpkin.

It's worth knowing sugars are already a natural component of the skin's NMF (natural moisturizing factor) so it's a molecule that your stratum corneum is well-acquainted with.

Just so you know, glucose is hydrophilic (water-loving) and the stratum corneum is a strong barrier to hydrophilic compounds. This just means penetration is slow and most of the action is happening on the surface.

Gram-to-gram, glucose is not as efficient as a humectant as glycerin. This is why you'll likely see glycose paired with stronger humectants for a bigger hydration payoff.

In skincare, glucose is typically derived from corn or other starch sources.

Interestingly, the size of the molecule affects its behavior:

Some clinical evidence links low molecular weight versions to improved wrinkle depth, elasticity, anti-inflammatory effects, and barrier repair.

Many serums use a blend of both weights so you can get surface hydration plus longer-lasting and deeper effects.

You'll typically see concentrations between 0.1-2% for this ingredient.

Though this ingredient works well with most skin types, some people with sensitive skin may experience a reaction such as allergic rashes, closed comedones, or itchiness.

Due to its antioxidant properties, trehalose may help with signs of aging. Antioxidants help fight free-radical molecules, unstable molecules that may damage your skin.

In medicine, trehalose and hyaluronic acid are used to help treat dry eyes.

Some animals, plants, and bacteria create trehalose as a source of energy to survive freeze or lack of water.

Research shows it can encourage your skin cells to turn over and renew by stimulating keratinocyte and fibroblast proliferation.

It also has mild keratolytic properties to help loosen and shed dead skin cells without being harsh.

Studies also suggest allantoin can help calm inflammation by dialing down some of the chemical signals your skin sends out when it is irritated.

This ingredient is typically used in the 0.1-0.5% range, and the FDA recognizes it as a skin protectant in OTC products up to 2%.

Overall, allantoin is a wonderful addition to most routines; it is stable across a wide pH range (~4-8), works well with other ingredients, and is considered non-sensitizing/non-irritating.

Fun fact: Allantoin is naturally occurring in comfrey root, beets, chamomile, and wheat sprouts. Our bodies even produce it as a byproduct of uric acid metabolism.

Antioxidant components in chamomile make it an effective ingredient to help slow the signs of aging. Antioxidants help fight free-radical molecules, or molecules that may damage your skin.

Essential oils from chamomile have been found to improve wound healing due to its antimicrobial properties.

Ancient Greeks and Egyptians used Chamomile to treat skin redness and dryness. Chamomile has also been used to help treat stomach issues.

Licorice Root also contains a flavonoid. Flavonoids are a natural substance from in plants. Flavonoids also have antioxidant properties.

Another component, glycyrrhizin, has been found to have anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial benefits. This may make licorice root extract effective at treating acne. However, more research is needed to support this.

Liquiritin is one of the flavone compounds found in licorice. It has been found to help lighten skin by preventing tyrosinase from reacting with tyrosine. When the two react, protein is converted to melanin. Melanin is the substance in your body that gives your features pigmentation.

Studies show green tea extract and its catechins (like epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG)) help your skin cells product energy more efficiently and reducing the number of free-radicals that can damage your skin from the inside.

In lab-grown skin models, this translated to younger, healthier, and stronger skin.

There's also good sun protection data; researchers saw less DNA damage and redness on human skin when green tea was applied before UVB exposure. And the more they applied, the better the protection.

Needless to say, this ingredient shouldn't replace your sunscreen. But it is a great supportive ingredient that you can already find in many sunscreens and antioxidant serums.

A 2009 study found a 2% green tea lotion was effective for mild-to-moderate acne thanks to its anti-inflammatory and mild antimicrobial activity.

The quality of the extract matters a lot here:

Good extracts contain 50-90% catechins while lower quality ones are mostly there for marketing. We recommend reaching out to the brand if you have questions about the quality or source of their ingredients.

Human Repeated Insult Patch Testing showed no irritation or sensitization at use concentrations (0.86% in leave-on products and up to 30% as leaf water).

Oryza Sativa Bran Extract contains numerous antioxidants such as ferulic acid. Antioxidants help fight free-radical molecules. Free-radical molecules are capable of damaging our cells and other genetic material.

Heart Leaf is rich in flavonoids such as quercetin, apigenin, and more. It also contains polysaccharides, the most common type of carbs in food.

Flavonoids have been shown to be effective antioxidants. They help neutralize free-radical molecules. Free-radical molecules are unstable molecules that may damage our skin cells and DNA. The flavonoids in Heart Leaf also help soothe the skin.

Polysaccharides are naturally found in our skin. They play a role in hydrating and repairing the top layer of skin. The polysaccharides in Heart Leaf help moisturize our skin.

Studies show decanoyl acetaldehyde, a component of Heart Leaf oil, is effective at killing bacteria.

The name 'Fish Mint' comes from the herb's natural fishy smell. Is is native to southeast Asia and used throughout the continent for traditional cooking and medicine.

These compounds allow centella to dial back inflammation, encourage the skin to build and hold onto collagen, support the barrier and hydration, and bring solid antioxidant activity to protect against signs of aging.

Centella also carries a nice supporting cast of Vitamin A, vitamin C, several B vitamins, and amino acids. Put it all together and you get an ingredient that soothes, hydrates, and protects, all at once.

Most of centella's magic comes from the four big compounds (Asiaticoside, Madecassoside, Asiatic Acid, and Madecassic Acid). These are the actives doing the heavy lifting in almost every centella study.

Here is the short version of what they do in the skin:

So it is not just soothing for the sake of soothing. Centella calms the skin AND helps it rebuild.

Just FYI, not all centella on an ingredient list is the same. What you are getting actually depends on the extract:

Fun fact on the ratios: the leaves tend to be richest in Madecassoside and Asiaticoside, and lower in the two acids. The exact amounts shift with where the plant is grown and how it is processed. This means purity really does vary brand to brand.

Centella is one of the most easygoing actives out there.

It layers well with basically everything: niacinamide, hyaluronic acid, peptides, and vitamin C, and also pairs nicely with stronger actives like retinoids and exfoliating acids where it can help take the edge off irritation.

On the safety side, centella and its triterpenes are classified as weak sensitizers, meaning allergic reactions are possible but uncommon.

Patch tests at 1% and 5% came back negative in test panels, and creams at typical use levels did not cause allergic reactions across large groups of people.

But as with any new active, a patch test is still a smart move for very reactive skin.

Centella is widely used because it is effective at low percentages. For context, human safety testing found no meaningful irritation from creams containing centella extract at everyday use levels (the tested amounts were well under 1%).

The irritancy threshold in animal testing was also above 30% (so real-world formulas sit far below anything concerning).

In collagen lab studies, higher concentrations drove more collagen synthesis, so serums built around centella tend to feature it more prominently.

Bottom line: you will find centella working nicely anywhere from a fraction of a percent up to hero-ingredient levels depending on whether it is a supporting soother or the main event.

Fun fact: Centella has been used as a medicine and in food for many centuries. As a medicine, it is used to treat burns, scratches, and wounds.

This is why Europe's medicines regulator has approved calendula extracts as a traditional remedy for minor skin inflammation and healing small wounds.

The stronger human evidence is around would/ulcer care rather than everyday cosmetic claims; a review that pulled together 14 studies found that calendula helped calm the early, inflamed stage of a wound and helped new skin tissue form faster.

Two studies also showed it shrank leg ulcers (the kind caused by poor circulation). Results were mixed for burns and for the skin irritation people get from radiation treatment, so it's not a sure thing there.

In cosmetics, it's mostly a skin conditioning and soothing agent.

The Cosmetic Ingredient Review panel concluded that calendula-derived ingredients are safe as used and that the ingredients are not irritating, sensitizing, or photosensitizing in clinical tests (though they may be mild eye irritants).

Typical use levels are quite low; industry data reported it used at under 0.5% (one supplier noted a 10-25% extract blend used at 1-10% in the finished product). Historical use goes up to 10%.

The only thing to keep in mind is if you have daisy/ragweed allergies. Calendula is in the same family and one patch-test study found 2% of dermatitis patients reacted to marigold. Be sure to patch test if you have sensitive or allergy-prone skin.

On top of that, this ingredient can counteract the effects of hard water by binding to the minerals in it.

One thing worth knowing is that Disodium EDTA has been shown to be a mild penetration enhancer. It can help other ingredients absorb into skin more effectively which can be a double-edged sword (great for actives, but can also make the active too strong if you have sensitive skin).

Clinical patch testing showed no significant skin irritation at typical use concentrations and minimal dermal absorption.

You'll most likely see this ingredient near the end of an ingredient list. It's typically found in concentrations less than 1%.

Potassium benzoate works best in products with a low pH level (below 4.5).