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A 2012 assessment found this ingredient is used in leave-on products at up to 21%, which is at the very high end for the category; most cosmetic use is far lower and typically in the single digits.

A true allergy to Laureth-4 is rare; similar alcohol ethoxylates tested negative for skin sensitization in undiluted guinea pig studies, and related compounds were non-sensitizing in Magnusson-Kligman maximization tests.

There is one caveat for this whole ingredient family: ethoxylated surfactants slowly oxidize when exposed to air, and it's the oxidation products, not the fresh material, that act as sensitizers. This is mostly a formulation and shelf life issue.

Dr. James Fulton's rabbit ear test from the 1980's scored this ingredient as a 5 on the comedogenic scale. Fulton himself described the rabbit ear as not an ideal model and the tests used undiluted ingredients on rabbit ears, which are more reactive than human facial skin.

Dr. Draelos later used a human assay on finished cosmetic products and found that products built with so-called comedogenic ingredients are not necessarily comedogenic themselves.

This ingredient can be potentially pore clogging if it appears high in the ingredient list of a leave-on product.

The fungal acne picture is actually reassuring: Malassezia uses fatty acids from its surroundings (C11-24). This ingredient has nothing for the Malassezia yeast to use since it is an alcohol and not an acid.

Supporting this, closely related ethoxylated alcohol detergents like Ceteth-20 get used in Malassezia lab work as neutral carriers to disperse a separately added fatty acid (not as the food source itself).

This ingredient has been found safe for use in cosmetics and broader PEG family testing shows minimal irritation/sensitization. The molecule's large size also means it isn't expected to penetrate skin to any meaningful degree.

Fungal acne note: This ingredient may not be fungal acne safe due to isostearic acid (C18). Isostearic acid falls into the C11-24 range that Malassezia can feed on.

While there are reports that tallow can disrupt your skin barrier, we cannot find sufficient proof of this.

Since tallow is an occlusive, it cannot be used alone as a moisturizer. Occlusives sit on top of skin and lock in the hydration that’s already there (from other ingredients). So using tallow alone will cause skin to dry out.

Due to the high fatty acid content, this ingredient may cause breakouts.

These compounds allow centella to dial back inflammation, encourage the skin to build and hold onto collagen, support the barrier and hydration, and bring solid antioxidant activity to protect against signs of aging.

Centella also carries a nice supporting cast of Vitamin A, vitamin C, several B vitamins, and amino acids. Put it all together and you get an ingredient that soothes, hydrates, and protects, all at once.

Most of centella's magic comes from the four big compounds (Asiaticoside, Madecassoside, Asiatic Acid, and Madecassic Acid). These are the actives doing the heavy lifting in almost every centella study.

Here is the short version of what they do in the skin:

So it is not just soothing for the sake of soothing. Centella calms the skin AND helps it rebuild.

Just FYI, not all centella on an ingredient list is the same. What you are getting actually depends on the extract:

Fun fact on the ratios: the leaves tend to be richest in Madecassoside and Asiaticoside, and lower in the two acids. The exact amounts shift with where the plant is grown and how it is processed. This means purity really does vary brand to brand.

Centella is one of the most easygoing actives out there.

It layers well with basically everything: niacinamide, hyaluronic acid, peptides, and vitamin C, and also pairs nicely with stronger actives like retinoids and exfoliating acids where it can help take the edge off irritation.

On the safety side, centella and its triterpenes are classified as weak sensitizers, meaning allergic reactions are possible but uncommon.

Patch tests at 1% and 5% came back negative in test panels, and creams at typical use levels did not cause allergic reactions across large groups of people.

But as with any new active, a patch test is still a smart move for very reactive skin.

Centella is widely used because it is effective at low percentages. For context, human safety testing found no meaningful irritation from creams containing centella extract at everyday use levels (the tested amounts were well under 1%).

The irritancy threshold in animal testing was also above 30% (so real-world formulas sit far below anything concerning).

In collagen lab studies, higher concentrations drove more collagen synthesis, so serums built around centella tend to feature it more prominently.

Bottom line: you will find centella working nicely anywhere from a fraction of a percent up to hero-ingredient levels depending on whether it is a supporting soother or the main event.

Fun fact: Centella has been used as a medicine and in food for many centuries. As a medicine, it is used to treat burns, scratches, and wounds.

Squalene is also naturally present in olive oil and exhibits moisturizing and antioxidant properties.

The polyphenols in olive oil also show anti-aging promise; one clinical study found a measurable improvement in skin appearance after 30 days of topical serum use.

Just be aware that applying olive oil directly to skin can weaken the barrier and cause redness. One study with volunteers found even people without sensitive skin experienced a significant reduction in stratum corneum integrity and induced mild erythema.

It's best to use this ingredient as part of a carefully crafted formula (instead of putting it on skin directly from the bottle).

Because it has a 0-2 on the comedogenic scale, it is low risk for acne-prone skin. Just remember the overall formulation of a product matters more than a few ingredients with comedogenic ratings.

This ingredient may not be fungal acne safe because of the oleic and palmitic acid content. These fall within the C11-24 fatty acid range that the Malassezia yeast can metabolize to grow.

Overall, olive oil is a well-studied and nourishing skincare ingredient.

As an emollient, it softens and hydrates skin by forming a thin barrier that locks in moisture.

Clinical studies have found it to be non-irritating and non-sensitizing. The CIR Expert Panel has evaluated the available safety data and concluded it is safe for topical use.

Because of the oleic acid content, this ingredient may not be fungal acne safe.

This ingredient does have a comedogenic rating of 3, but this doesn't mean a formula with this ingredient will clog pores.

Human testing has proved that any finished product with a comedogenic ingredient won't automatically make you break out; it really comes down to concentration, formula, and your skin.

Clinical studies have found it can reduce water loss and improve smoothness/hydration, particularly in sensitive skin types. Studies also suggest it helps maintain the lipid layer that is compromised in atopic (eczema-prone) skin.

Wound healing studies showed that low-concentration linseed oil formulations (1-5%) produced significant barrier repair, but it should be noted that high concentrations showed diminishing returns.

This ingredient shows up on a lot of "pore-clogging" lists but there's no real evidence behind that. It doesn't even have a comedogenic rating from an actual study; the numbers you'll find online come from blogs citing other blogs.

Ratings for other ingredients mostly come from a 1980s rabbit ear test. This test doesn't translate well to human skin or to real products because the ingredient sits at a much lower percentage.

Some people still find it breaks them out. So if that's you, definitely trust your skin.

The Malassezia yeast feeds on fatty acids in the C11-24 range, and this ingredient is basically all C16-18 fatty acids. Therefore, this ingredient may not be fungal acne safe.

Topical evidence is small but reasonably consistent; most of it is about barrier function rather than curing anything.

In 37 infants with seborrhoeic dermatitis treated daily with topical borage oil containing 24% GLA, all patients were free of skin symptoms within 3-4 weeks.

A double-blind placebo controlled trial in 32 children aged 1-10 used undershirts coated with borage oil for two weeks and found statistically significant improvements in erythema and itch. Transepidermal water loss from the back also decreased.

The CIR reviewed this ingredient and concluded it to be safe as used in cosmetics.

Concentration amounts can be as low as fractions of a percent all the way to 100% in facial oils.

Oxidation matters since it's high in polyunsaturates: pairing it with tocopherol or opaque packaging can make a difference.

Allergy risk is low though anyone with a known Boraginaceae allergy should patch test. Cosmetic-grade refined borage oil is usually free from the proteins that cause allergies, but manufacturing quality can differ around the world.

This ingredient shows up on a lot of "pore-clogging" lists but there's no real evidence behind that. It doesn't even have a comedogenic rating from an actual study; the numbers you'll find online come from blogs citing other blogs.

Ratings for other ingredients mostly come from a 1980s rabbit ear test. This test doesn't translate well to human skin or to real products because the ingredient sits at a much lower percentage.

Some people still find it breaks them out. So if that's you, definitely trust your skin.

The Malassezia species takes up external fatty acids in the C11-24 range to survive. Since this oil is a triglyceride of exactly the chain lengths it needs, this ingredient may not be fungal acne safe.

Topically applied tocopherol has been shown to protect against UV damage by ramping up the skin's own natural defense enzymes.

It also acts as a skin conditioning agent; some studies show that regular topical use can improve the skin's water-binding capacity over 2-4 weeks.

This ingredient is especially loved for being a team player. When combined with Vitamin C, the photoprotective effect of both ingredients roughly doubles and the combo also helps reduce UV-induced DNA damage.

This ingredient has some brightening potential but it's more of a prevention ingredient than spot-fader. Cell studies show it can slow down melanin production but it's worth noting that it's not the most powerful brightener out there.

In formulations, it also serves as a stabilizer that helps protect other oxidation-prone ingredients from degrading.

Concentrations usually range from 0.1-1% in most leave-on products.